A mountain to climb
The quest to uncover the final resting place of Alexander the Great has been a centuries-old enigma, captivating historians and archaeologists alike. Liana Souvaltzi, armed with her expertise and unwavering determination, alongside Dr. Andrew Michael Chugg, a man of profound historical knowledge, joined forces in this historical undertaking. Their journey led them across the Mediterranean, from the sun-kissed shores of Libya to the storied landscapes of Italy, each step bringing them closer to unraveling a secret shrouded in the mists of antiquity.
With governmental roadblocks thwarting their paths, the two researchers held fast to their convictions, navigating through the annals of history to piece together the elusive puzzle of Alexander’s final whereabouts. Their search, rooted in the rich tapestry of ancient civilizations, demanded a profound understanding of the historical context, an endeavor that would propel them into the depths of the past, where legends and reality are inextricably intertwined.
Traveling back in time
The narrative of Alexander the Great’s death remains enshrouded in a veil of mystery, an enigmatic conclusion to the life of one of history’s most legendary conquerors. In the ancient world, where the death of a figure like Alexander would be a momentous event, shrouded in both ceremony and lamentation, his passing instead became a tale of secrets and whispers.
The layers of this historical enigma were many, with disputed accounts and contradictory theories entwining to form a complex web of uncertainty. Despite the passage of centuries, the circumstances surrounding his demise have remained elusive, fueling endless speculation and scholarly debate. The silence of antiquity on the matter only serves to deepen the intrigue, leaving us to ponder the final chapter of a man who shaped the course of history.
The prevailing theory
Dr. Katherine Hall’s proposition in 2019 added a fresh perspective to the perennial debate over the cause of Alexander’s death, introducing a medical lens through which to view the ancient puzzle. She postulated that the mighty ruler of Macedonia might have fallen victim to an insidious enemy from within: an auto-immune disease known as Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS). This condition, which can insidiously rob one of mobility and strength, might have led to a cruel twist of fate, rendering Alexander a captive within his own failing body.
Hall’s theory paints a chilling tableau: the once-unstoppable conqueror rendered immobile, yet cognizant, perhaps even as he was being prepared for burial. It’s a notion that straddles the line between medical science and historical drama, a testament to the enduring enigma of Alexander’s untimely end.
A grave error in judgement?
As Hall’s theory suggests, Alexander’s fate could have been the stuff of nightmares, the robust leader stricken by GBS, reduced to a state of living death. The idea that his body exhibited no signs of decay in the days following his perceived demise could indicate that his indomitable spirit was still trapped within, his heart beating faintly beneath the death shrouds.
This horrifying possibility of entombment in a state of premature burial adds a macabre layer to the legend of Alexander, transforming his death from a historical event into a tale of gothic horror. Hall’s theory, if true, would cast Alexander’s final days in a light as dark as any of the treacherous battles he faced in life, a solitary confrontation with the inexorable approach of death.
The controversy lives on
The debate surrounding the death of Alexander is as multifaceted as the empire he once ruled, with various experts postulating a litany of potential causes that could have snatched the life from this once-invincible figure. The specter of alcohol poisoning looms as one possible culprit, alongside the shadowy hand of an assassin’s treachery.
Infectious diseases such as malaria and typhoid fever have also been named as likely agents of his demise, each with its own compelling evidence. This convergence of theories underscores the complexity of solving a mystery that has confounded historians for millennia, and the challenge of discerning truth from the convoluted annals of the past.
Alexander’s burial
The final journey of Alexander the Great’s mortal remains is a saga marked by as much intrigue and political maneuvering as his storied conquests. After his passing, Alexander’s body became a coveted symbol, a macabre trophy sought after by his former generals and successors, each eager to claim the prestige of housing the remains of the once-great king.
His initial burial in Memphis was but the first chapter in a posthumous odyssey that saw his sarcophagus transported to Alexandria, the city that bore his name. There, his tomb would become a hallowed site, drawing pilgrims and dignitaries alike, until the sands of time and the relentless march of nature conspired to obscure its location from the annals of history.
The ban
In the once-bustling metropolis of Alexandria, the tomb of Alexander the Great transitioned from a revered monument to a forgotten relic, its memory eroding as the city itself succumbed to the ravages of natural disasters. As paganism waned and Christianity rose to prominence, the resting place of the Macedonian king fell victim to the shifting tides of religious sentiment.
Theodosius’s edict against pagan practices signaled the end of the tomb as a site of veneration, precipitating its descent into obscurity. The earth itself seemed to conspire to conceal Alexander’s remains, as earthquakes and the encroachment of the sea consigned the tomb to the realm of legend and lore.
The dig
Calliope Limneos-Papakosta’s tireless pursuit of Alexander’s tomb was a testament to the indomitable spirit of discovery that drives archaeology. For over a decade, her team toiled in the shadows of history, sifting through layers of sediment and stone in search of a trace of the long-lost ruler.
The Shallalat Gardens excavation, a labor of love and dedication, was nearing its conclusion, with the sands of Alexandria yet to yield their secrets. And then, in an instant that would transform years of patient effort, the soil relinquished its grasp on a fragment of the past—a gleaming beacon of white stone, a tantalizing hint that the quest was far from over.
The hint
The discovery beneath the gardens of Alexandria sent ripples of excitement through the archaeological community, as the unearthed Hellenistic statue bore the unmistakable mark of Alexander the Great. This remarkable find spurred renewed vigor among Papakosta’s team, propelling them to delve deeper into the ancient city’s subterranean layers.
Over seven grueling years, they burrowed further into history’s embrace, gradually revealing the contours of the royal quarter, each discovery a piece of the puzzle that was Alexander’s final chapter. As the dig extended thirty-five feet beneath the surface, the secrets of a bygone era slowly came to light, each artifact a whisper from the past, urging the searchers onward.
The search for leads
Earthquakes and the gradual rise of the Mediterranean had long concealed Alexandria’s ancient secrets, yet Papakosta remained undeterred, meticulously sifting through historical texts, studying faded maps, and harnessing the latest ground-penetrating radar to peel back the layers of time. The anomalies her team discovered hinted at a past rich in grandeur and complexity, sparking excitement and possibility.
Among the artifacts unearthed were structures that whispered of bygone opulence, perhaps even a royal necropolis, where the tomb of Alexander might lie. With each spadeful of earth turned, the anticipation grew – could they be on the cusp of one of the greatest archaeological finds in history?
The discoveries kept rolling in
The dedicated excavation team, led by the indefatigable Papakosta, pressed on, unearthing more of Alexandria’s regal precincts piece by piece. The Roman road they uncovered suggested a city that bustled with commerce and chatter, while a significant edifice unearthed nearby hinted at a place of prominence and power –
a locale befitting the burial of a revered ruler. Each discovery was a tantalizing clue, a potential step closer to answering the enduring mystery of Alexander’s final resting place.
Making history
As Papakosta and her team delved into the foundational strata of ancient Alexandria, the magnitude of their findings became apparent. Not only had they uncovered elements of the city’s fabled past, but they had also stumbled upon its very genesis, tracing the city’s origins back to its earliest incarnations.
The revelation of Alexandria’s architectural genesis was a testament to their relentless pursuit of knowledge and a profound connection to the city’s storied legacy.
A plethora of possibilities
Papakosta, fueled by over two decades of painstaking work and an unwavering belief in her mission, remained steadfast in her conviction that Alexander’s tomb was within reach. Her work had brought her intimately close to the heart of the ancient royal city – an odyssey that paralleled the epics of Greek lore.
Yet, despite her confidence, she recognized that definitive proof still eluded her grasp, even as her fellow seekers, Chugg and Souvaltzi, pursued their own theories with equal fervor.
Laying the groundwork
For Souvaltzi, the road to Siwa was paved with historical intrigue and a profound conviction that Alexander’s wishes lay buried beneath the desert sands. Her pursuit of the Oasis of Siwa was driven by the belief that it held the key to one of history’s greatest enigmas, with Alexander himself possibly orchestrating his final act from beyond the grave.
Her quest to secure the necessary permissions to excavate was as much a battle with bureaucracy as it was with the elements.
The secrets within
Siwa, an oasis shrouded in the mystique of antiquity, had long been a beacon to those seeking to unearth the pharaohs’ legacies. Souvaltzi’s excavation, fueled by tenacity and insight, uncovered marvels that transcended expectations:
majestic lion statues that once stood guard, a grandiose entrance as if to welcome the gods themselves, and the pièce de résistance – a tomb that exuded Hellenistic royal splendor. The magnitude of her finds signaled a breakthrough that reverberated through the corridors of time.
The inscriptions
The inscriptions Souvaltzi deciphered spoke of a journey’s end, a body transported with reverence and care, potentially the culmination of Alexander’s own odyssey. The tomb’s inscriptions hinted at royal involvement, with connections to Ptolemy, one of Alexander’s most trusted generals and the founder of a dynasty.
The clues were aligning, the narrative coming into focus, and Souvaltzi stood on the threshold of an archaeological revelation.
The spanner in the works
But history, as ever, is fraught with the complexities of international relations, and Souvaltzi’s groundbreaking work was abruptly halted as geopolitical currents shifted and tensions flared. The halt of her excavation was a stark reminder of the delicate interplay between politics and historical inquiry.
While this sudden pause in her research was a setback, the quest for Alexander’s tomb was far from over, with Dr. Andrew Michael Chugg picking up the mantle and venturing forth with his own promising leads.
A fresh perspective
Dr. Andrew Michael Chugg meticulously pieced together ancient texts and cross-referenced historical accounts to form his hypothesis on Alexander the Great’s final resting place. He posited that the original tomb built by Pharaoh Nectanebo II, adorned with Greek art, was an homage befitting a ruler as influential as Alexander.
Chugg’s fascination with the Macedonian conqueror’s life, death, and afterlife became a passionate quest, as he trawled through archives and chased leads across countries to solve one of history’s enduring enigmas.
Where’s the body?
Chugg’s theory, as adventurous and controversial as it might sound, proposes that the tomb of Alexander was confused with that of Saint Mark by over-zealous Venetian merchants.
He presents the idea that these merchants, in their quest for relics, unwittingly transferred the remains of a world-renowned military genius instead of the Christian evangelist they revered. The theory adds an intriguing twist to the saga of Alexander’s lost tomb and blurs the line between veneration and historical misfortune.
The not-so-wild theory
The discovery in Venice was nothing short of revelatory, aligning with Chugg’s assertions and potentially rewriting a significant chapter of history. The piece of masonry, when measured and studied, seemed to perfectly mirror the dimensions of the sarcophagus attributed to Nectanebo II, now housed in the British Museum.
Such precise architectural echoes across continents and ages tantalize historians and archeologists alike, stirring the pot of historical curiosity.
Right under our noses
Chugg’s narrative continues as he visualizes the body of Alexander the Great, taken in secret to Venice, its true identity shrouded in religious fervor and historical error. If his theory holds true, the body of the Macedonian conqueror has for centuries been venerated under a different identity, resting in the opulent embrace of Saint Mark’s Basilica.
The implications of this discovery challenge long-held beliefs and could prompt a reevaluation of historical and religious artifacts.
Ancient Greece
The legacy of Ancient Greece, rich in intellectual and cultural milestones, often overshadows the more earthy, human aspects of its daily life, much like the sanitized versions of history taught in classrooms.
Yet the reality of their existence was as grounded and visceral as any society’s, complete with inconvenient truths and unsavory practices. These forgotten details of everyday life paint a fuller, more relatable picture of an ancient civilization.
They wiped their butts with stones
The ancient Greeks’ ingenuity extended to all facets of life, including hygiene, though by modern standards, their methods were less than ideal. Their reliance on natural elements for sanitary purposes, though resourceful, undoubtedly presented challenges.
The use of pottery shards, albeit practical in their scarcity of resources, offers a wry commentary on the human capacity for spite, even in the most intimate of moments.
Working out was a naked activity
The term ‘gymnasium’ takes on a whole new light when we consider its ancient Greek origins, which denoted a place for exercising in the nude. This cultural norm of public nudity, so distant from today’s gym etiquette, offers a stark contrast to contemporary values of privacy and modesty.
The ancient Greeks’ comfort with the human form speaks volumes about their society’s perceptions of beauty, athleticism, and community.
Your doctor would taste your body fluids
Ancient Greek medical practices, as bizarre as they seem today, reflect the empirical approach to understanding the human body and its ailments. The peculiar methods of diagnosis, including the tasting of bodily fluids, reveal a rudimentary but earnest attempt at medical science.
These early physicians, undaunted by the unpleasant nature of their work, paved the way for future advancements, albeit with practices that would raise eyebrows in any modern clinic.
Women’s hygiene was nasty
The Ancient Greeks held firmly to a belief system that considered women to be embodiments of purity, curiously juxtaposing this notion with practices that modern sensibilities would find repugnant. Women were subject to treatments that involved bathing in or consuming animal feces, a practice thought to have purifying and medicinal properties.
This archaic approach to feminine hygiene was less about health and more a reflection of the times’ limited understanding of the female body, a stark contrast to today’s standards of care and knowledge.
Feces was used for skin care
Health and beauty routines in Ancient Greece were often less than glamorous by today’s standards. Seeking rejuvenation, individuals would indulge in treatments that involved the use of fresh animal dung as facial masks,
a far cry from the refined skincare regimens of the 21st century. These practices, while undoubtedly organic, certainly challenge contemporary notions of cleanliness and aesthetic enhancement.
Squat and sneeze was their birth control
Contraceptive advice in Ancient Greece often bordered on the comical, with suggestions such as the application of oils or forcefully sneezing to avert pregnancy.
While their innovative spirit in exploring methods to control birth is notable, the effectiveness of these techniques remains questionable, often resulting in unintended consequences and, quite possibly, children with unique names that echoed the sounds of failed prevention.
They shared bath water
The concept of communal bathing in Ancient Greece was a testament to their social nature, yet it also highlights a rather lax approach to personal hygiene. Prominent citizens and commoners alike would immerse themselves in public baths, sharing water that had been used and reused by others.
This practice emphasizes a communal spirit over the individual need for cleanliness, a far cry from the luxurious and solitary spa experiences of the modern era.
Urine was used as mouthwash
The Ancient Greeks had their unique methods of dental care, which included using human urine as a mouth rinse, an antiquated practice based on the belief that the ammonia in urine could whiten teeth.
It is a stark reminder of the lengths to which humans will go to achieve beauty, regardless of the unpleasantness of the method. Today’s mouthwashes, with their minty freshness and germ-killing properties, stand in stark contrast to the urine rinses of old.
“Bad blood” was drained from the body
The practice of bloodletting in Ancient Greece was a standard medical procedure rooted in the belief that it could expel illness from the body. Physicians would cut open a patient’s vein, allowing what they considered to be the diseased blood to flow out, sometimes replacing the blade with the natural extractor—the leech.
This method, though it occasionally provided relief, often led to complications or even death due to infection or excessive blood loss, highlighting the perilous path to wellness in ancient times.
Greeks invented the vulgar “middle finger”
Road rage isn’t a modern invention, it seems, as the Ancient Greeks already had a gesture for expressing anger or insult while on the road, which involves raising the middle finger.
This act, infused with suggestive symbolism, has persisted through millennia, evolving into a universally recognized sign of offense. It’s a cultural relic that, despite its vulgar connotations, connects us with our historical predecessors in a shared expression of human emotion.
Athlete’s sweat was sold to the wealthy
The use of athlete’s sweat as a remedy for aches and pains in Ancient Greece is a testament to their belief in the curative powers of the human body. Wealthy individuals would eagerly purchase the dirt and sweat scraped from the bodies of athletes, applying it to their own skin in the hopes of absorbing its supposed healing properties.
This practice reflects a time when the mystical was often intertwined with medicine, and the prowess of athletes extended beyond the physical realm to the mystical healing arts.
Going hairless meant serious pain
Ancient Greeks approached the quest for smooth skin with a mixture of creativity and bravery. Without the luxury of modern razors, men and women resorted to the painstaking task of plucking each hair from their bodies with pincers, a process that demanded patience and pain tolerance. For those seeking a quicker method, burning the hair off was an alternative, albeit one fraught with the risk of burns and scalds.
This potentially perilous grooming ritual underscores the lengths to which ancient societies would go to conform to beauty standards. As a result, a slip of the hand or an error in judgment could lead to scarring or worse, marking an individual with a permanent reminder of their attempt at vanity. Such practices underline the enduring human preoccupation with appearance and the sacrifices made in its pursuit.
Lesbians were, uh, anatomically misunderstood
The sexual relationships between women in Ancient Greece puzzled their contemporaries, who struggled to understand such unions in the absence of male participation. Greek thinkers, limited by their knowledge, postulated the existence of “female penises” to rationalize the mechanics of lesbian love. It’s a reflection of the societal norms of the time, which were deeply entrenched in male-centric views of sexuality and procreation.
The notion that two women could engage in a romantic and sexual relationship without a male figure was so inconceivable that it required the invention of anatomical impossibilities to justify their understanding. This speaks volumes about the historical perceptions of gender roles and the lack of recognition for women’s sexual agency.
They had phallic parades
The wild festivities dedicated to Dionysus, the god of wine and ecstasy, were characterized by the throngs of worshippers who took to the streets in unrestrained celebration. These revelers would parade giant effigies of male genitalia, symbols of fertility and Dionysian excess, while indulging in bawdy humor and obscene jests.
This boisterous atmosphere not only exemplified the Greeks’ veneration for their deities but also inadvertently laid the groundwork for the inception of comedic theater. The lively and often irreverent spirit of Dionysian festivals permeated these early performances, giving birth to a theatrical tradition that delighted in the absurd and the humorous. These origins of comedy reflect the societal importance placed on festivities and the shared human enjoyment of laughter and entertainment.
Wool clothing was common
For the less affluent citizens of Ancient Greece, clothing options were far from comfortable or hygienic. Garments woven from wool, their most accessible material, were often coarse and scratchy, causing irritation to the skin. The lack of sophisticated laundering techniques meant these woolen clothes became home to parasites like lice and fleas, further contributing to the discomfort and health issues of the wearers.
Such textile limitations highlight the disparities in living conditions between different social classes, illustrating how even the basic need for clothing could exacerbate the divide between the haves and the have-nots. It serves as a reminder of the progress made in textile manufacturing and personal hygiene, advancements that have transformed daily life and well-being.
Lesbians were, uh, anatomically misunderstood
The sexual relationships between women in Ancient Greece puzzled their contemporaries, who struggled to understand such unions in the absence of male participation. Greek thinkers, limited by their knowledge, postulated the existence of “female penises” to rationalize the mechanics of lesbian love. It’s a reflection of the societal norms of the time, which were deeply entrenched in male-centric views of sexuality and procreation.
The notion that two women could engage in a romantic and sexual relationship without a male figure was so inconceivable that it required the invention of anatomical impossibilities to justify their understanding. This speaks volumes about the historical perceptions of gender roles and the lack of recognition for women’s sexual agency.
They had phallic parades
The wild festivities dedicated to Dionysus, the god of wine and ecstasy, were characterized by the throngs of worshippers who took to the streets in unrestrained celebration. These revelers would parade giant effigies of male genitalia, symbols of fertility and Dionysian excess, while indulging in bawdy humor and obscene jests.
This boisterous atmosphere not only exemplified the Greeks’ veneration for their deities but also inadvertently laid the groundwork for the inception of comedic theater. The lively and often irreverent spirit of Dionysian festivals permeated these early performances, giving birth to a theatrical tradition that delighted in the absurd and the humorous. These origins of comedy reflect the societal importance placed on festivities and the shared human enjoyment of laughter and entertainment.
Wool clothing was common
For the less affluent citizens of Ancient Greece, clothing options were far from comfortable or hygienic. Garments woven from wool, their most accessible material, were often coarse and scratchy, causing irritation to the skin. The lack of sophisticated laundering techniques meant these woolen clothes became home to parasites like lice and fleas, further contributing to the discomfort and health issues of the wearers.
Such textile limitations highlight the disparities in living conditions between different social classes, illustrating how even the basic need for clothing could exacerbate the divide between the haves and the have-nots. It serves as a reminder of the progress made in textile manufacturing and personal hygiene, advancements that have transformed daily life and well-being.
They also wiped their butts with sponges
The communal nature of Ancient Greek latrines, where sponges mounted on sticks served as reusable toilet paper, is not only an interesting tidbit of historical hygiene but also the origin of a still-used idiom. These sponges, stored in water to be used again and again, led to the phrase “grabbing the wrong end of the stick,” a euphemism born from a rather unpleasant reality.
The communal use of such an intimate tool underlines the vastly different concepts of privacy and sanitation in ancient societies compared to modern standards, where individual hygiene products are a given.
Newborn babies were dunked in wine
The Greeks had a peculiar method for testing the fortitude of their infants, immersing newborns in wine as a primitive strength assessment. This harsh introduction to the world was believed to weed out the weaker children, a testament to the unforgiving nature of the times.
Such rituals underscore the survival-of-the-fittest mentality prevalent in ancient cultures, where even the youngest members were not spared the brutal expectations of strength and resilience.
Roosters were exchanged for sex
The Ancient Greek practice of pederasty, where an older man would court a young boy with gifts like roosters, was a socially accepted form of mentorship and affection, albeit one that modern societies view with ethical unease. This tradition was a rite of passage for many young Greek men, who, upon reaching adulthood and growing facial hair, were expected to transition from beloved to benefactor.
The exchange of roosters symbolized the cyclical nature of this tradition, with the expectation that each generation would continue the practice. This reflects a complex facet of Greek society where relationships and social structures were deeply intertwined with cultural norms and expectations.
Zombies were a thing
In ancient Greece, fear of the undead was palpable and vividly woven into their burial rites. To prevent the feared occurrence of revenants, or the reanimated bodies of the dead, certain measures were meticulously executed. Upon the demise of individuals believed susceptible to such a haunting return, Greeks would dismember their corpses, ensuring that the limbs could not aid in any ghastly resurrection. To further solidify their efforts, heavy stones were strategically placed upon the graves, serving as a formidable anchor to keep the dead securely within the earth’s embrace.
The implications of this belief system were manifold, affecting legal proceedings, personal autonomy, and the value placed on female agency. Greek laws surrounding these acts were more concerned with the violation of honor among men rather than the violation of the woman’s body, reinforcing the narrative that women’s rights were secondary to male property rights. In this way, the echoes of ancient Greece resonate uncomfortably in modern discussions about consent and ownership, challenging us to confront the historical origins of deeply ingrained gender inequalities. These societal norms starkly contrast with today’s evolving understanding of consent and individual rights, highlighting a long, ongoing journey toward gender equality.
Women were seen as property
The status of women in the ancient Greek world was alarmingly reductive, often regarded as mere chattel in the hands of their male guardians. Rape was, disturbingly, not seen as an assault on the woman’s autonomy or wellbeing, but rather as an affront to the man who ‘owned’ her.
Women were thus doubly victimized—first by the act of violence itself and then by the societal view that reduced their trauma to property damage.
Slaves wore chastity belts
The ancient Greeks were known to practice a form of bodily control known as infibulation, which involved the application of a clamping device to a slave’s genitalia. This gruesome practice was believed to suppress sexual urges or prevent sexual relations, dehumanizing the individual to the level of livestock in need of regulation. Such devices inflicted pain and served as a constant reminder of the enslaved person’s lack of autonomy, both physically and sexually.
In more extreme cases, slaves perceived as particularly recalcitrant were subjected to genital mutilation, an act of barbarity that stripped them of their sexuality and further dehumanized them. These practices, accepted and normalized in ancient Greek society, highlight a dark facet of their culture where human rights were non-existent for those in bondage. The legacy of such inhumane treatment underlines the historical atrocities committed in the name of ownership and control, raising profound moral questions about the cruelty of past civilizations and the value they placed on human life. This abhorrent facet of ancient society starkly contrasts with modern principles of human rights and bodily integrity, offering a sobering reminder of the brutal realities that underpinned the ancient world.